Social Inequalities

To find out as to what extent social class not only shapes attitudes, values and beliefs, but also has a significant impact on life chances, I will begin by defining social stratification, social class and life chances. Sociological theories will also be used to help understand society. Education and employment impact on society will also be discussed using journal articles obtained as a guide. To understand social stratification, it is important to make a distinction between social inequality, which refers to the existence of socially created inequalities whereas social stratification is a particular form of inequality. It refers to the presence of distinct social groups which are ranked one above the other in terms of factors such as prestige and wealth. Using the functionalist theory, we can understand stratification better as this theory views society as a system that is set of interconnected parts which together form a whole. Talcott Parsons (1902- 79). Davis and moore (1945), claimed that all societies have some form of social stratification. George Peter Murdock (1949) maintained that the family exists in every known human society. All these people seem to suggest that individual families and social stratification meet needs that are common to all societies. I agree with the functionalism theory as it is small groups such as families that make up society as a whole. Each family trying to survive and do better than others in the process bettering the society. For a society to survive, functional prerequisites of society are required as Marion J. Levy (1952) argued that a society would cease to exist if its members were absorbed into another society or involved in a war of all against all. Marion J. Levy ’ s argument can be challenged. With the shortage of housing, families getting absorbed into another society would be replaced by families searching for accommodation. On the other hand, ethnomethodologists follow Alfred Schutz (1932) in believing there is no real social order as other sociological perspectives assume. Social life appears orderly to members of society only because members actively engage in making scence of social life. According to Zimmerman and Wieder (1971), society go about the task of seeing, describing and explaining order in the world in which they live. Social class – Savage et al. described social class as social collectivises rooted in particular types of exploitative relationships. These collectivises are groups of people who share levels of income, lifestyles, cultures and political orientations. An example of this could be a group of footballers, would share the same level of income, with similar lifestyles will act or be seen or perceived differently to golf players who are equally rich but may have a different lifestyle to footballers. This can be linked to Marxist theory. Karl Marx (1818- 83) regarded people as both the producers and the products of society. People are regarded as producers as they make society and themselves by their own actions. People are regarded as products of society in that they are shaped by the social relationships and systems of thought they create. To support Karl Marx ’ s comment on people being a product of society, a real life example could be given where a student joins university for the first time. University can be regarded as a society with different individuals, all trying to achieve the same thing. It is up to the new student to choose the group he joins and this will affect the student ’ s life at university if in a bad group or good group thereby making the student a product of that society. Life chances- Gerth and mills, (1954) stated that a person ’ s position in a stratification system may have important effects on many areas of life. It may enhance or reduce life chances that is their chances of obtaining those things that are desirable and avoiding those things defined as undesirable in their society. (Max Weber). To help determine whether in fact social class not only shapes attitudes, values and beliefs, it is important to categorize social class. Social class refers to the persistent social inequalities. Two distinct types of social inequality have been identified by researchers working with two different sociological theories. One theory is derived from the work of Karl Marx the other from the writings by Max Weber, which are somewhat critical of Marx ’ s work. Marxian approach suggests that social class was defined by ownership of the means of production bourgeoisie who exploit the workers who do not own the means of production (proletariat). Source: the Canadian encyclopedia. Marxian approach can be challenged as it does not refer to occupation or levels of income. Marxian approach regarded everyone that did not own land as proletariat. This would mean that senior managerial administrative and manual working class would be regarded as being in the same class (proletetariat). There is a vast difference between the income and benefits of senior managers compared to manual workers therefore it wouldn ’ t be right to put the two in the same class. Ethnic and gender factors are mportant in differentiating people and in relating them to the general division of labour and inequalities of opportunity and conditions which are associated with it. Another way of categorizing class is by referring to upper class, consisting of property owners (bourgeoisie), middle class consisting of senior managers, middle managers and supervisory and service worker class and finally the working class or lower class consisting of manual work ers. A variety of studies have shown that non-manual workers enjoy advantages over manual workers in terms of their life chances. The office for national statistics (ONS), has compiled a range of statistical evidence on inequalities between classes in England and Wales. (Focus on social inequalities 2004). In 2002, 77% of year 11 children with parents in higher professional occupations obtained five or more GCSE ’ S at grade C or above, compared to 32% of those with parents in routine occupations. In my opinion, the above statistics suggest that parents can also act as role models to their children. An example is that if a parent is CEO of an organization, he/she will encourage their children to do well at school and reach the same level or above the parent position. Just for being CEO, this parent has set a target level for his/her children which is quit hard to archive but with the parent ’ s income, the child can go to private school and increase life chances. On the other hand, it would be hard for a parent in manual labour to encourage their child to reach CEO position. This child may see this as an impossible task and will settle for the same factory job or aspire to be the factory supervior. This child ’ s parent income could not be enough to better life chance. Social class does really shape attitudes, values and beliefs and this can be supported by the common American saying â€Å" The American dream † . The American dream can be explained as a belief and the freedom that allows all citizens and residents to achieve their life chances in the USA. Today, in America it generally refers to the idea that one ’ s prosperity depends upon one ’ s own abilities and hard work. ( wikipedia encyclopedia). This is a message passed on to all people in America but in my opinion, people from the lower class are likely to believe in the American dream as some form of comfort or assurance that things could get better in future. The journal article below is by Andrew Billen. The Times. London uk. Aug 20, 2007. Pg 19(Full article can be found on Appendix 1) Page 2 In last night ’ s season opener, the fascistically titled the will to win[Robert Winston] fretted at age 7 their fates may already be sealed. Certainly, by the programme ’ s end it looked if the Jesuits knew what they were talking about. As little William sprinted ahead of the pack to the finishing line of his private school ’ s egg and spoon race, his ambitious mother was convinced he was already the person he would become. â€Å" I ’ m definitely going to win, † he had confidently predicted half an hour earlier. â€Å" And I ’ m going to come second, † chipped in his friend, the sort of friend William would need. Down at the other end of Britain, where life chances are more ragged, was [James], whose ambition in life had hardened up: he wanted to be a robber. His answer to a dumbed-down IQ test question, â€Å" what do you do if you find a wallet on the floor? † was â€Å" take it home † . Despite this, James ’ s IQ was found to be just a touch below average. If only he had been clever enough to choose different parents. His father had scampered when he was an infant, leaving his mother Carol, struggling. This article points out that a child born in an upper class family will have better life chances as they will be able to attend very good schools or private schools thereby bettering their chances of succeeding. Page 2 Aspects of life such as income play an important part in achieving life chances as pointed out by the article below taken from Allister Heath. Sunday Business London (UK) Jun 26. 2005 pg 1. The writer noted that the UK is plagued with low social mobility; and that this is partly due to the strong and increasing relationship between family income and educational attainment. The proportion of children from the poorest fifth of families born during the early 1980s obtaining a degree has increased from 6% to 9%, while the graduation rate for the richest fifth has risen from 20% to 47%. Full article can be found on Appendix 2) Social class still exists at present as most of what we do on a daily basis is determined by how we perceive or wish to perceive ourselves. Eg, the cars we choose to buy, friends we choose etc. Jonathan Moore, UK BBC Publication, 18/12/2007 I fully agree that social class does in fact have a significant impact on life chances. The functionalist theory did des cribe society as a system that is set of interconnected parts which together form a whole. This brings out the fact that society is divided into different classes and that inequalities do exist. William, in the journal article was positive he would win because of his up brining from his parents not to accept second best. His parents, through their jobs have set a target for William which will affect his life chances. REFERENCES Martin Holborn and Mike Haralambos, sociology themes and perspectives, seventh edition, 2007. Tony J. Watson, sociology ,work and industry, third edition, 1995. Mike Noon and Paul Blyton, the realities of work, second edition, 2002. Keith Grint, the sociology of work, third edition, 2005. The times. London(uk): Aug 20, 2007 pg 19. Sunday Business. London(uk): Jun 26,2005 pg 1.

Life and Work of Ed Clark Essay

Hailed from the Storyville in the state of New Orleans, Edward Clark had made his imprint to the Visual and Arts field of the African American History. Born on 1926, he studied at Art Institute of Chicago for his four years degree from year 1947 to 1951. After he finished his bachelor’s degree, he studied again in Paris at L’Academie de la Grande Chaumiere during the year 1952. In his years in Paris, the academe where he was into influenced him a lot to pursue more and one his talent in painting and arts. His instructor named Edouard Georg of the L’Academie de la Grande Chaumiere, encouraged him to paint and make arts works and pieces. But before his study in Paris, he already received good words and encouragement from his instructor in Art Institute of Chicago named Louis Ritman. However, though much appreciated by Clark, neither of the two had become inspiration for him to make his own work. It was the painting entitled â€Å"The Football Game† created by Nicolas de Stael. He had seen the painting when he was in Paris the same year 1952 in an exhibit in Salon d’Automne. After he lived in Paris, France, he came back to New York to continue his art profession and career. Clark became one of the charter members of the Tenth Street’s Brata gallery. This was where the works of the famous artists like Sal Romano and John Krushenick were displayed and shown. Also, the works of George Sugarman, Al Held, and Ronald Bladen were shown there. During the year 1957, his work with a shaped canvass had been displayed on the same gallery where he had been a member in a Christmas group show. It was described in an article of Lawrence Campbell on Art News as the first and one of its kind. His works for over the five decades of being an abstract artist have been known internationally. With his work displayed in 1957 in the Brata gallery, which was a work in a shaped canvass, he was the very first painter to be credited having an innovated work. In time, his kind of work had influenced the contemporary art during the years of 1950 and 1960. He became known of his works in large-shaped canvasses, his strong impact brush strokes, and his choice of colors in every masterpiece he made. And because of these things about him and he had made, he had been called as an â€Å"Abstract Impressionist. Aside from the work that had been exhibited at Brata gallery, another work of Clark made him famous was the one that had been placed and displayed at his Alma Mater Art Institute of Chicago. This work of Clark belonged to the permanent collection of the Art Institute of Chicago. After his very successful career as abstract artist in New York, he came back in France where he made his very first oval painting. To date, this was almost a decade after he firstly done his push broom technique in making his masterpieces. With his push broom technique, he was able to move himself freely while painting on the canvass, as a result, his strokes were big and bolded, and these made him more different among other abstract artist. Clark was always open for new creation and styles of his work. Aside from the push broom technique that he had first used, he also used the method similar to â€Å"pouring sand. † However, it was just inspired by the mentioned method and Clark made use of the dry pigments, this time on the paper instead on large canvass. During his times, it was the post war years of realism and years of abstraction. Also, the paintings of other artists were concentrated on the civil rights issue and racial clamors between the white men and black men. Clark, though addressed almost the same issue, had delivered his works in a very different, although he was using large canvasses alike with other artists that time. After the 1950s, it was the Black Arts Movement and Abstraction that hounded the field of visual and arts. Black men asserted their culture authority in line with the civil rights they were asserting on the past decade. Clark also belonged to these artist where African American Arts were much honed.

Pest Analysis of Coca Cola Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Pest Analysis of Coca Cola - Essay Example Most governments have enacted taxation on entities. Consequently, entities have to pay taxes on the returns made. The economic expansion of a country affects entities significantly. However, the impacts of such occurrences seem to have minimal impact on Coca Cola’s revenues. The entity has numerous products, which has ensured that the entities incomes are stable. Therefore, failure in the revenues of one product does not cause a significant decrease in its overall income. The entity demand seems immune to the current economic downfall. Consequently, there is the minimal decrease in revenues volumes. However, increases in taxes in any country will result in higher cost of Coca Cola’s merchandise (Jain, Trehan & Trehan ND, p.120).In a world where the clients are extremely concerned about their health, refreshment companies may encounter challenges. These challenges include government regulations on the constituent of drinks. The government prefers low-calorie refreshment since obesity has become a major concern. Additionally, the consumer is more conscious about what the calorie levels of any product they consume. This has posed challenges to refreshment companies. However, Coca-Cola has the capability to provide products, which meet the calorie requirement. This has been a key challenge to entities in this industry. However, it has been an advantage to Coca-Cola as it has the expertise to produce products that meet the above requirement (Jain, Trehan & Trehan ND, p.110).... However, the impacts of such occurrences seem to have minimal impact on Coca Cola’s revenues. The entity has numerous products, which has ensured that the entities incomes are stable. Therefore, failure in the revenues of one product does not cause a significant decrease in its overall income. The entity demand seems immune to the current economic down fall. Consequently, there is minimal decrease in revenues volumes. However, increases in taxes in any country will result in higher cost of Coca Cola’s merchandise (Jain, Trehan & Trehan ND, p.120). Social In a world where the clients are extremely concerned about their health, refreshment companies may encounter challenges. These challenges include government regulations on constituent of drinks. Government prefer low calorie refreshment since obesity has become a major concern. Additionally, the consumer are more conscious about what the calorie levels of any product they consumer. This has posed challenges to refreshme nt companies. However, Coca Cola has the capability to provide products, which meet the calorie requirement. This has been a key challenge to entities in this industry. However, it has been an advantage to Coca Cola as it has the expertise to produce products that meet the above requirement (Jain, Trehan & Trehan ND, p.110). Technological Technological advancement has been extremely vital in ensuring that the entity achieves mass production. This has ensured that Coca Cola can meet the massive demand for its product. Additionally, technology has ensured that entity can rebrand its product by introducing new packaging, which has enabled the entity maintain its market share. Technology has also enabled in the automation of selling machines. Thus, the entity does not require personnel to sell

Improving Decision Making, DB Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Improving Decision Making, DB - Essay Example efuted that the reason why people often answer not-so-confidently on these questions was the fact that nations or states are all capable of conducting such actions. That is, since the choice of states to be answered are limited only to the Soviet Union and the US, the questions cannot really accurately determine that indeed, people cannot determine the difference between Soviet and American political actions. It is also possible that respondents may have thought of another state or nation which can be applied in the context or scenarios given. Thus, the first activity demonstrated how reasoning and decision-making are multi-faceted. While there are specific answers to challenges or problems, there are different ways in the manner by which the individual arrived at the answer. That is, the individual may have guessed correctly that for both scenarios, s/he identified the correct nation/state. However, his/her assessment in arriving at the answer may have been contributed by the fact that the facts of both scenarios are unique or somewhat identified to a single country only. For example, the use of the term â€Å"party† in the first scenario signified the Communist party Soviet Union was popularly known for in the late 20th century. Similarly, the 1960s was a period of invasion and active political expansion and military movement for the US. Thus, responses for both scenarios were not motivated by the actions of the countries alone, but on the facts of the scenarios—the association of the facts of each scenari o to a particular country. This finding from the first activity is reflected in the second activity, which discussed the issue of â€Å"calibration.† From the first activity, it was shown how decision-making cannot be done solely on the basis of one criterion alone; instead, decision-making is composed of different facets that influence the individual’s decision to choose one solution over another one. In the second activity, the exercise

The Fires in Wieland written by Charles Brockden Brown Essay

The Fires in Wieland written by Charles Brockden Brown - Essay Example Giving an account of her grandparents, she then introduces her father, but focuses on his life before his tragic death at her tender age. According to the author, her father started acting crazy when he started believing that he had a divine calling immediately after completing his apprenticeship. She was then a yo9ung woman to understand much, though she could tell that her father developed some weird habits. The astute belief that he had a calling led him to Philadelphia where he purchased a farm and started cultivation. After fourteen years of cultivation, he married, losing his interest in theology and his beliefs of his calling in his cultivation. However, at one time, he took back to his theological studies, and begun his missionary once more. His plan however did not work as he expected, as he suffered from immense frustration, exhaustion, hunger, and fear. After his return to his family, his state did not change. Instead, he slipped to his state of solitude, frugality, and st rictness. It was at his home that he decided to heed to his calling. Starting his mission, he built up a temple in a cliff overlooking the river. Nothing was fancy about the church, notes the narrator. It had been a small mud hut, with an earthed floor and no door or window did not show any form of fanciness. Routinely, her father visited the temple twice a day to seek the guidance of God on his mission. Even after starting his mission, his state never improved, rather, his sadness deepened. Arguing that his cause of sadness was due to the deviation from his duty, he never gave any explanation what this actually meant. As the author narrates, her father felt that his death was near, which he himself described as sudden and terrible. One day, he left the house, saying that he wanted to take care of a few â€Å"urgent engagements† but never revealing where he was going. When he returned home without talking and acting strange, the narrator’s mother

Personal Perspectives of Death and Dying Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Personal Perspectives of Death and Dying - Essay Example Man doesn’t know from where he comes and doesn’t know when and where he goes. He has come to the world unknowingly and disappearing from the world knowingly. The only thing most of the people does not want in their life is death. I have accepted all the realities mentioned above and most of the times I hated to think about death since such thoughts about death will never give us the opportunity to concentrate in our mission on earth. For me, I came to the earth unknowingly and I strongly believe that some unknown force might have sent me to the earth for some mission. It is our duty to identify the mission and execute it successfully. I believe that once our mission is completed the force which sends us will call us back. Earth is not a permanent place for us and hence what all we received from the earth need to be dispose here itself before going for another mission at another place. In other words the material things which were acquired from the earth will not help us in our future assignment. I believe that the spirit does not have death and hence only the spiritual improvements will help us in our future missions. Those who work on spiritual things also along with other activities on earth will be the wise persons for me. Even though science and technology has advanced a lot, still it was not able to decode the secrets of life. Even the science and technology do not know where our spirit lies or what type of forces driving us. Religions and their teachings will have values till the science discloses the secrets of life and after death situations. Till then it is better not to question the beliefs of religions in my opinion. What is going to happen after death is a question which is unanswered so far and it will remain like that only for ever in my opinion. Religions have defined death and after death situations in their own views. Though most of the beliefs among religions are

Spotify TM Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Spotify TM - Essay Example The report bases its arguments on research information from various sources. Moreover, the report provides various recommendations about the topic. These recommendations are relevant to any company that considers information systems significant in their operations. Introduction Spotify TM is a music service company that streams music to its customers through desktop and mobile phone. The company has a vast database with millions of songs that millions of subscribers can listen to from the internet. Currently, the company has more than 20 million users. Its services are mostly available to European countries (Li, Peters, Richardson & Weidenmier, 2012). It has been able to maintain its market in the competitive music business due to its competitive nature. The company also uses strategic measures that have been able to keep the company running. Its key technique has been the use of information systems that are strong enough to sustain the business plan of the corporation. This report f ormulates and evaluates the company’s strategy and frameworks in maintaining their business. It also discusses theoretical perspectives on how the company uses technology to build a competitive advantage for its sustainability. Moreover, the report also provides recommendations that the company can adopt to enhance its business. The company allows one to buy a spotify software program that users can use to stream music from a huge collection of music, and tracks (Lashley, & Clark 2013). Users stream this music using their computers, mobile phones, and tablets. The need exists for one to download the music he listens to, but only entails streaming the music. SPOTIFY TM All companies have business strategies of which state their goals. Business strategies state methods through which they will be able to attain the set goals. Spotify TM has been able to implement various models by Michael Porter in achieving its goals. Spotify TM uses information systems to its advantage in usin g the five forces model. For instance, the company’s uses an interactive website that provides easy navigation by a subscriber on the internet (Rice, 2010). The website arranges its content in a good way that makes the content well visible. The font that the website uses is attractive and makes it easy for a subscriber to view things clearly. Therefore, subscribers become loyal as the company provides better services to its customers. This aspect has been able to create a barrier to new companies from entering into the market (Jenkins, Leicht & Jaynes, 2008). In addition, users can browse music by record label, album, genre, playlist, artists, and through direct searches. With a better website that provides quick services to its customers, the company has been able to lower its charges to its subscribers. It also provides a free six-month trial period once one creates an account. This is due to the increase of subscribers to the company’s services. This creates a buyer power that helps the company to maintain its companies. There are also wide alternatives that customers can choose from in their subscription plans. Hence, the company has a wide range of customers that can subscribe to its services. The company allows one to listen to an unlimited number of music that supports radio-style advertising that the company removes once one subscribes fully.

Discussion Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 81

Discussion - Essay Example This research explores the effect of competences of emotional intelligence including empathy, awareness, emotional response, and emotional control on effective delegation of tasks and authorities in the banking industry of Malaysia. This research found a relative link between competitiveness and productivity in the workplace and emotional intelligence. There is on-going debate and research work regarding the extent to which emotional intelligence sets the stage for effective leadership. Competitiveness and success of bank managers imparts the need for managers to understand their own as well as their team’s emotions, and the importance of their role in the organization. Managers need to draw a balance between their intellect and emotion. The success and growth of any industry depends upon the productivity of the workers. Study of this article leads one to the conclusion that there is a huge role of emotional intelligence of managers in the correct delegation of tasks to the right employees. Delegation of authorities to the right people for the right reasons and at the right time boosts workers’ productivity and helps the organization achieve its goals

Business report Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words - 1

Business report - Essay Example Given the fact that Chicken Treat is into the quick service restaurant industry, the nation has already witnessed a lot of new players in this particular area starting operations in India. The world famous players like MacDonalds, Taco Bell, Pizza Hut etc have already opened scores of outlets in all major cities within India. So the time is ripe for making an entry into the Indian markets since deferring this decision would only increase competition and may also lead to entry in an already saturated market. The report would harp on the macro environmental factors that are probable to become important if Chicken Treat actually mulls expanding these outlets into the Indian shores. With the help of PESTL and SWOT, the literature available on the industry at large, the upcoming trends, the best market entry decision for Chicken Treat would be suggested in order to make the new market development work a likely success. PESTL Analysis The analysis should initiate with the PESTEL Analysis, which refers to the blend of various macro environmental forces that drive the performance of the organization and consists of the political, economic, sociological, technological, ecological and legal forces (Viardot, 2004). Furthermore, â€Å"it assists companies in the selection of attractive markets and the appropriate entry mode† (Aubert & Frigstad, 2007). Political India as a nation is indeed currently politically stable and post globalization the country has been trying to attract FDI in various sectors and one of those leading industries is the quick service restaurant industry. This is likely to prove to be an advantage in terms of the political environment of Chicken Treat and its subsequent market expansion in the Indian markets (Krafft & Mantrala, 2010, 130). As already mentioned, South Asian nations in general and specifically India and China have gradually geared up for globalization and are therefore welcoming multinationals like MacDonalds and Pizza Hut. In th e context of globalization, various regulation and tax policies as well as FDI regulations have already been relaxed to a substantial extent and the processes of deregulation and delicensing of various products and services are taking place at a fast pace. This should also work towards paving the way for companies like Chicken Treat to open outlets in India. However, given the high order of democracy in India, various political organisations have been trying to resist the entry of too many firms in food sector with particular emphasis on FDI in retail and especially multi brand retail (Datt, 2008, 178). This may also affect the quick service restaurant industry to a considerable extent and hamper the proper functioning of firms such as Chicken Treat. Again, it is sure that the Indian government wants more investment in FDI; therefore the environment should work out to be overall congenial for Chicken Treat in India. Legal The legal environment of Chicken Treat in India again brings forth quite a few heartening aspects of heightened outlay in FDI and patronization from the government along with various other legal entanglements that should be adhered to if a firm intends to open sales outlets in India. Among the other aspects of the legal environme

ONE of the following Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

ONE of the following - Essay Example It is still possible to mitigate, avoiding the worst. The scientific community has offered specific recommendations to governments, but the question is whether politics are going to listen to the recommendations of scientists. Thus, we are going to discuss the challenges that global warming presents to both governments and businesses. First of all, it is necessary to mention that global warming is a tremendous challenge to the whole humanity. To date, the global scientific community has received the irrefutable proofs of the secular trend of global warming, which serves as an indicator of climate changes on the Earth. The surface temperature of the atmosphere has increased by 0, 74 ?C over the past century. Average temperatures in the Northern Hemisphere were higher than in any 50-year period in the last 500 years during the second half of the twentieth century, and probably is the highest in the last 1300 years. Thinking about consequences of global warming, Weart (2003) stated that widespread phenomena, such as rising sea levels, melting glaciers and polar ice sheets (particularly in the Arctic), the reduction of snow and ice covered areas of the earth’s surface, the increase in rainfall in some regions (the eastern part of North and South America, Northern Europe, North and Central Asia ) and a decrease in others, the expansion arid zones (Africa, South Asia, part), more frequent tropical cyclones in the North Atlantic, etc. are connected with global warming. Global warming and climate change affect the condition of many natural ecosystems in some ways, and thus, they have an impact on climate conditions in the biosphere as a whole, the biosphere conditions of human existence. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), which includes up to 2500 experts from 130 countries, stated in the Fourth Assessment Report, which was presented in 2007, that global warming is an undeniable and already irreversible fact. The IPCC projected that by the end of the XXI century, if current trends continue to develop, surface temperature can rise to the most accurate estimate on 1,8-4,0 ? C (different scenarios), but likely, a greater value will have a place - from 2,9 to 6,4 ? C. This will entail an increase in climatic ‘shocks’ and disasters, such as more frequent and extensive flooding, flooding of low-lying coastal areas in one regions, drought and desertification in others. The changes, in turn, will lead to a reduction in agricultural productivity, especially in arid zones, water resources depletion, a dramatic reduction of biodiversity, and a spread of dangerous infectious diseases due to worsening conditions of the existence of a huge mass of people, especially in the poorest countries and to general regression in human development throughout the XXI century. Arguing the problem of global warming some researchers declared that the Industrial Revolution has changed the lives of mankind for the better, but the annual e missions of carbon dioxide and other gases that cause a greenhouse effect, has grown considerably at its very beginning. Billions of tons of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases accumulate in the thin protective layer of the Earth. Nowadays, the concentrations of these gases in the atmosphere are half as much again as before the Industrial Revolution. Discussing the challenges that global warmi

Intro to Greek Mythology Influence Essay Example for Free

Intro to Greek Mythology Influence Essay Introduction: In order to understand the impact of Greek mythology on Western culture one must understand what Greek mythology itself is. Greek Mythology is the belief, tales, and stories of ancient gods who ruled the ancient world as well as heroes who challenged the gods or some who fought for them. Many of these tales include moral stories and shaped humanistic values of what and what not to do. The ancient Greece Empire was located around the Mediterranean Sea and touched parts of what was called minor Asia (Howstuffwork 2010). In these times the belief was that ancient gods were a part of everyday life. Supposedly the gods rules all aspect of life such as the production of food, domestic life, war and social life such as fortune and love. The people mad sacrifices to these gods to â€Å"please† them and many died fighting for these gods, which no one actually saw because of their home on Mount Olympus. Greek mythology was more than just stories to these people it was actually a religion, which formed and shaped political nature of Ancient Greece as well. Greek mythology attempts to explain the origins of the world and the reasons for occurrences in the world. The time period of when Greek mythology began is not really confirmed it is estimated around 800 BC, but there have been accounts of earlier pottery and artifacts which show images of the gods. These mythical stories have stood against the sands of time and even today are used in modern language and societies. Howstuffworks Ancient Greece. (n.d.). HowStuffWorks Learn How Everything Works!. Retrieved February 10, 2011, from http://www.howstuffworks.com/ancient-greece.htm/printable

North Korea’s Nuclear Weapons Program

North Korea’s Nuclear Weapons Program North Korea has been in the forefront of the news as of late due in part to their Nuclear Weapons program. Their efforts to develop nuclear weapons has been an ongoing concern worldwide for some time now and tensions increased internationally after they conducted multiple tests in the recent years. What is North Korea’s real intentions in regard to their nuclear weapons program? In order for us to better understand North Korea’s intentions, it is important to take a look at the timeline of their nuclear weapons programs progression and the negotiations known as the six party talks; from this one can see that their intentions are based off of their financial hardships and famine.   North Korea’s attempt toward the acquisition of nuclear technology dates back as early as 1959. It was at this time that they signed a nuclear cooperation agreement with the Soviet Union. This agreement was aimed at the development of nuclear energy technology and by 1983 the North Korean nuclear weapons program had been started (Ahn Web). In 1968, the Nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty (NTP) was drafted by the USSR and the United States and submitted for United Nations members to sign (Clemens Jr. Web). During the late 1980’s North Korea had developed a state of economic decline. This was due in part to the Soviet Union’s economic and political changes, in which they had stopped providing financial aid to North Korea (Ahn Web). Do to this economic hardship North Korea decided to sign the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) in 1985 (North Korea Nuclear Timeline Web). However, between 1989 and 1991, it had become suspect that North Korea had been pursuing nuclear activities by extracting plutonium from its research reactor at Yongbyon. These suspected activities led to the first North Korean nuclear crisis which lasted from 1993–1994† (Ahn Web). The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) was sent in to investigate what was believed to be unregistered nuclear waste dumping facilities, but North Korea was not cooperative with that request. However, when the West agreed to assist North Korea through economic aid and the lifting of economic sanctions it seemed that the crisis had come to an end (Ahn Web). Just another example of how North Korea intentions stem around the economic hardships that the country faces. In 1994, North Korea and the United States had come to an agreement that North Korea would freeze and eventually dismantle its old nuclear reactors. In exchange, they would be provided international aid to build two new light-water nuclear reactors (North Korea Nuclear Timeline Web). North Korea was in dire need of the e xtensive economic aid that the West would provide. During the 1990’s North Korea’s economic recession continued its downward spiral. By May of 1994, famine had become wide spread throughout the country. Many believed that the nuclear program was a tool used by North Korea’s leader to divert the public’s focus away from the economic problems and famine and refocus it on the United States and the IAEA (Ahn Web). This way the North Korean leader could point the blame for the hardships of the people toward one enemy and away from himself. In January of 2003, North Korea withdrew from the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) (North Korea Nuclear Timeline Web). This withdrawal is what lead to negotiations that are known as the Six Party Talk. These talks involved six states, the United States, North Korea, China, South Korea, Japan and Russia. The purpose of these talks was to try to persuade North Korea to dismantle its nuclear capabilities. It was believed that with the right amount of pressure and incentives that North Korea would cease their nuclear proliferation endeavors and be convinced to dismantle its nuclear capabilities (Habib Web).   North Korea was continuing to have economic issues and their primary intent seemed to steam around the need for economic aid. These negotiations would take place from 2003 until 2009 and were comprised of six rounds of talks. In the first round of talks which occurred in August 2003, North Korea called for normalization of relations. They wanted a non-aggression pact from the United States otherwise they would not dismantle their nuclear program. However, the United States declined this request (Liang Web). When the second rounds of talks began in February 2004, they appeared to be off to a good start. North Korea put a deal on the tale to destroy its nuclear weapons program if they could continue to develop peaceful nuclear energy programs. This was an agreeable compromise for China and Russia. However, the United States, Japan, and South Korea were not in agreement. They did not want North Korea to have access to nuclear capabilities (Liang Web). Looking back on North Korea’s past it is understandable that this would be a concern, because they have not kept deals that they had made in the past. For instance, when they had signed the nonproliferation treaty then secretly continued to pursue nuclear weapons development. In the third round of talks, in June of 2004, the United States stepped up with a proposal. In this proposal, they called for North Korea’s to dismantle its nuclear program. It stated that North Korea would be given a three month period to prepare to freeze its program, after which they would be required to provide record of activities proving that activities had stopped and that the program had been dismantled (Liang Web). This proposal did not go anywhere. The fourth round of talks did not get off to a good start. The United States Presidential election put negotiations on hold for a while followed by North Korea declared that they were now in possession of nuclear weapons. North Korea then declared that they were no longer interested in continuing the six party talks. But, they would eventually be convinced to return to negotiations when the US agreed to recognized them as a sovereign state. The turning point for North Korea to rejoin the talks would be when the US stated that they did not have any intentions of invading North Korea (Liang Web). On September 19, 2005, there appeared to be headway on the negotiations front with North Korea’s agreement to abandon their quest for nuclear weapons program and allow the IAEA back in for inspections in exchange for the normalization of relations with the US and Japan as well as economic aid (Bajoria Web). Again, we see that economic aid has made its appearance once again. However, North Korea wanted to continue their nuclear energy program. They agreed to rejoin the NPT, as well as to allow inspections from the IAEA (Liang Web). By the time the fifth rounds of talks began, in November of 2005, tensions were high and the climate of negotiations had deteriorated. The US had placed sanctions against North Korea and the froze the assets the state held in the Banco Delta Asia of Macau (Liang Web). North Korea had again boycotted the six party talks. They decided to do a show of power in an attempt to send a to the US to unfreeze North Korea’s assets. This is when North Korea begun to conducting missile and nuclear testing (Habib Web). The United Nation passed resolution 1718 in October of 2006 on North Korea calling for an immediate stop to their testing and the nuclear program to be abandoned. They urged North Korea to return to the six party talks. Talks resumed in February 2007 and there appeared to be an agreement amongst the six parties. North Korea would dismantle its nuclear program and the Us and Japan would to work toward normalization with North Korea. The agreement included the that all parties would work toward providing north Korea with the acquisition of heavy fuel (Liang Web). The sixth round of talks did not start off well. The US had not released the funds in the Banco Delta Asia of Macau and the North Korean delegate walked out of negotiations. Although talks would continue in September and October of 2007 after the IAEA confirmed that the nuclear facility at Yongbyon and the parties continued their talks about supplying heavy oil (Liang Web). Just as talks were looking like there was progress they began to falter yet again. North Korea was not happy with samples being collected at their Yongbyon facility and claimed that no such agreement had been made. In April 2009, North Korea test launched a modified Taepo Dong-2 three-stage rocket. An obvious disregard to the agreements made in other rounds of talks. On April 14th 2009, North Korea announced that they would no longer be part of the six party talks and that any agreement that had been made in previous talks were null and void. Many have called for the talks to continue, but to no avail (Liang Web). There seems to be a stalemate at this time. We can see that North Korea has no intentions to dismantle their Nuclear weapons program any time soon. For them it is their bargaining chip. The use of fear of attack as a means of getting what they want, what they need. It is apparent that North Korea has been in search of Nuclear technology for many years. Their motives behind this search come to light when one takes a look at the history behind it. A deeper look into time line of North Korea’s nuclear weapons and the event that occurred during the six party talks, shows that North Korea’s declining economic situation has been a key player in their quest for nuclear weapons capabilities. There desperate need for economic aid has led them toward a road where they believe the fear of a nuclear attack is the only way for them to obtain the much needed assistance that they need. Works Cited Ahn, Mun Suk. What Is the Root Cause of the North Korean Nuclear Program?. Asian Affairs: An American Review, vol. 38, no. 4, Oct. 2011, pp. 175-187. EBSCOhost, doi:10.1080/00927678.2011.604287. Bajoria, Jayshree, and Beina Xu. â€Å"The Six Party Talks on North Koreas Nuclear Program.† Council on Foreign Relations, Council on Foreign Relations, 30 Sept. 2013, www.cfr.org/backgrounder/six-party-talks-north-koreas-nuclear-program. Habib, Benjamin. North Koreas Nuclear Weapons Programme and the Maintenance of the Songun System. Pacific Review, vol. 24, no. 1, Mar. 2011, pp. 43-64. EBSCOhost, doi:10.1080/09512748.2011.554992. Clemens Jr., Walter C. North Koreas Quest for Nuclear Weapons: New Historical Evidence. Journal of East Asian Studies, vol. 10, no. 1, Jan-Apr2010, pp. 127-154. EBSCOhost, ccco.idm.oclc.org/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=48647386&site=ehost-live&scope=site. â€Å"North Korea Nuclear Timeline Fast Facts.† CNN, Cable News Network, 4 Sept. 2017, www.cnn.com/2013/10/29/world/asia/north-korea-nuclear-timelinefast-facts/index.html. Liang, Xiaodon. â€Å"Fact Sheets & Briefs.† The Six-Party Talks at a Glance, Arms Control Association, 18 July 2017, www.armscontrol.org/factsheets/6partytalks.

The chemistry of drug metabolism

The chemistry of drug metabolism Introduction To describe and explain the chemistry of drug metabolism a basic foundation of knowledge is needed to understand the concepts. Metabolism is one of the methods for analysing the effect of drugs or xenobiotics on the body. It is basically a process of converting lipophilic drugs into more hydrophilic drugs to decrease pharmacological effect and increase subsequent hepatic or renal elimination. So it is essentially a process of inactivation and detoxification of a drug and subsequent elimination of the metabolite formed. The basic knowledge involves the all time classical reactions such as oxidation and reduction and those more advanced reactions including glucuronidation and sulfation. Despite energy being needed to drive such reactions to be in favour, metabolism cannot occur without the complex nature of enzymes catalysing the process. However, metabolism of drugs in human is not solely dependent on the enzymes alone it can be affected by natural micro flora in the small intestines. In an in vitro experiment conducted on ranitidine, it was found that N-oxide was cleaved and is therefore a source of drug metabolism. An alteration in the population of micro flora can affect the of drugs efficacy this is a source of interaction between antibiotics and Microgynon ®. Furthermore, some drugs are bioactivated by metabolism to form active metabolites with a desirable pharmacological function i.e. prodrugs. Unfortunately metabolism can transform an inactive drug or xenobiotic into a biologically active compound which can be carcinogenic to humans. Phenol is a readily formed metabolite of benzene metabolism before catechol and hydroquinone 3,6 which poses a major health concern for humans because it can cause acute myelogenous leukaemia 6 As the great founding father of medicine Paracelsus once said â€Å"all drugs are poison†. Therefore humans and animals have adapted many mechanisms for detoxifying xenobiotics, and these processes are divided into two phases phase I and phase II. It is important to bear in mind that some phase II reactions can occur without phase I metabolism, but phase I and phase II reactions are complimentary and not mutually exclusive. This report describes the chemical reactions of drug metabolism and explains how they occur in vivo. 3.0 Phase 1 Phase 1 metabolism involves the direct enzyme activity on drugs P450 isoform enzymes and esterases are responsible for reduction and hydrolysis of drugs respectively. Each P450 isoenzymes genetic expression varies and can either be inhibited or induced. Knowledge of these drivers of metabolism is essential not only to optimise the use of drugs, reduce harm, maximise benefits in poly pharmacy but also to serve as a template for novel drug development10. P450 and esterase enzymes are mainly found in the liver. Phase I metabolism consists of 3 main reactions: oxidation, reduction and hydrolysis. 3.1 Oxidation 3.1.1 P450 mono oxygenase system 3.1.2 Other oxidation reactions 3.2 Reduction reactions Reduction reactions are mainly interconversion reactions that occur in azo, nitro and epoxide groups and conversion of carbonyl to its corresponding alcohol. Reduction reactions are carried out in the body by P450 isoenzymes, NADH/NADPH reduction systems, carbonyl reductase or aldo-ketone reductase. Azo compounds are generally used in pharmaceutical and cosmetic products. Reduction of an azo group is a classical example of a reduction metabolic reaction. This reaction occurs in the presence of other enzymes and is inhibited in the presence of molecular oxygen. Mechanism of Azo reduction Azo reduction can also occur in the presence of NADH/NADPH system alone within the pH range 3.5-6.08. An azo group can either be reduced by 2 hydrogens to form hydrozo compounds or 4 hydrogens to form two aromatic amines which usually results in a colour loss10 Mechanism of Nitro reduction Nitro groups also undergo reduction reactions and these are catalysed by the same NADP systems. 6 e- are donated to the NO2 to form amine functional groups as in chloramphenicol. This then undergoes acetylation conjugation in phase II metabolism. Conversion of carbonyl to corresponding alcohols Many different enzymes have been identified that catalyse carbonyl reduction of xenobiotics, but most of them catalyse other endogenous substances including sugars and prostaglandins7 Oracin, an anticancer drug with a pro-chiral carbon is metabolised by 11 ÃŽ ²-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type I in the microsomes. These metabolites are stereo specific to form DHO7 as shown below in figure 3.2.4. Much of what is known about Oracin metabolism is from phase II clinical trials as its not licensed for use in chemotherapy yet. Mechanism of epoxide reduction This reaction is catalysed by microsomal epoxide hydrolase, a catalytic triad that consists of His 431, Asp226 and Glu 404. Their activity is limited because of a narrow hydrophobic tunnel in the active site and water. A water molecule ionises to form a OH and H+ OH attacks the oxirane ring and thus opens it resulting in formation of vicinal dihydrodiol. This reaction is slow in vitro without acid but in this case epoxide hydrolase catalyses the reaction. Vicinal diols formed are more water soluble thereby terminating genotoxic potential. Hydrolysis Most hydrolysis reactions occur at the ester and amide functional groups, with ester more prone to hydrolysis than amide. Amides are more stable than esters because nitrogen is similar to carbon in size, but less electronegative than oxygen so electrons are pulled into the carbonyl Ï€ electron systems which stabilise its structure. The ease of hydrolysis of esters is used in the development of prodrugs to avoid first pass metabolism, a major problem in orally administered drugs. In vivo hydrolytic metabolism of drugs occurs in the presence of enzymes present in various parts of the body. Hydrolysis of drugs and xenobiotics is generally carried out by esterases mainly in the plasma and intestine and not by P450 systems. The blood, GI tract and liver have the highest hydrolysing capacity. The most significant hydrolysing enzymes are carboxylesterases, cholinesterases, arylesterases and serine endopeptidases. Carboxylesterase is one of the major esterases involved in drug metabolism and xenobiotic biotransformation of drugs with esters, amide and thioester functional groups. In figure 3.0 hydrolysis of ester bond results in benzoylecgonine, a carboxylic acid metabolite. But this is not the only ester group present in the structure. The group present next to the benzene can also undergo metabolism to form benzoic acid. Cocaine in the presence of heroine can generate the toxic metabolite cocaethylene in the presence of alcohol, from concomitant cocaine abuse. Carboxylesterase exists in two different forms hCE1 and hCE2. hCE1 is a more effective metabolic enzyme which transports protein to the endoplasmic reticulum and processes fatty acids and cholesterol in the liver alongside other cholesterol enzymes. The general mechanism of drug hydrolysis in esters and amides is by nucleophilic acyl substitution reactions as shown in figure 3.2.6. Minor structural differences exist between heroine and its metabolites, but their activity differs. Heroin (diamorphine) is converted by hydrolysis to 6-acetylmorphine and morphine. hCE1 mainly cleaves the 3-acetyl linkage to form 6-acetylmorphine. The 6-acetyl linkage is cleaved which later forms morphine with a phenolic -OH and secondary allylic -OH. Diloxanide furorate is a drug of choice and an antiparasitic agent for treating asymptomatic patients with E. histolytica cysts in the faeces and cryptosporidiosis, an acute intestinal amoebiaosis in HIV patients. The drug is orally administered and extensively metabolised by gastro intestinal esterase to form diloxanide and furoic acid, thereby diminishing its effectiveness. This problem is modified by using cyclodextrin that prevents excessive hydrolysis of the drug. Carboxylesterases ability to form a stable complex enhances its presence in the blood and makes it ideal for treating cocaine overdose. It is also considered that as an active site for drugs, this would make it ideal for drug discovery e.g. sarin and VX gas. 4. Phase II Conjugation pathway The phase II conjugation pathway is often a detoxification mechanism. It terminates drug pharmacological activity by changing or masking functional groups in the parent drug or phase I metabolite into a more ionic polar product which aids excretion. The processes that commonly occur in phase II metabolism can be fundamentally divided into 3 groups which are glucuronidation, sulfation and acetylation. The nature and functional group of a drug molecule will determine which one of these processes be in favour e.g. acetaminophen undergoes both glucuronidation and sulfation, however at high doses glucuronidation predominates and at low doses sulfation predominate (Airpine Choonara, 2009). 4.1. Conjugation with sugars Conjugation with various sugars is possible in nature, and novel pathways for xenobiotic metabolism are discovered frequently (Ikenakaa, Ishizakab, Miyabaraa, 2007). However the most important reaction in humans is glucuronidation. 4.1.1 Glucuronidation Glucuronidation is essentially conjugation of a substrate with ÃŽ ±-D-glucuronic acid, shown in figure 4.1.1.1. As the name suggests, glucuronic acid is a derivative of glucose with the 6th carbon being oxidised to a carboxylic acid group. This in combination with the many hydroxyl groups gives glucuronic acid a solubility of 1g/10mL in cold water, which the British Pharmacopeia would class as â€Å"freely soluble† (British Pharmacopeia Commission, 2009) Glucuronic acid is present in vivo as the co-factor uridine 5-diphosphate-glucuronic acid (UDP-glucuronic acid). The reaction of UDP-glucuronic acid with a xenobiotic substrate is catalysed by the enzyme UDP-glucuronosyltransferase (UGT) (Kaeferstein, 2009), and an example of a glucuronidation reaction is shown in figure 4.1.1.2 Figure 4.1.1.2 demonstrates how glucuronidation can occur with a xenobiotic containing an acceptor nucleophilic group (for example COOH, SH or NH2, but in this case OH) (Kaeferstein, 2009) (Sakaguchi, Green, Stock, Reger, King, 2004). The lone pair of electrons on the hydroxyl group attacks at the 1st carbon of the pyranose ring, which is activated because of the adjacent electron-withdrawing oxygens, in an SN2 nucleophilic substitution reaction. The UDP glycosidic bond is cleaved off owing to the good leaving group properties of the phosphate group, and the xenobiotic has reacted with the glucuronic acid to form a ÃŽ ²-D-glucopyranosiduronic acid conjugate. Note that the reaction is known to be SN2 because the formation of an intermediate leads to an inversion of stereochemistry at the anomeric carbon. The resulting glucuronide conjugate has improved solubility due to the hydroxyl and carboxylate groups, and is usually excreted in the urine, although there is evidence to suggest that conjugates with a high molecular weight are eliminated in the bile. However the glucuronides undergo some important reactions within the body which affects their metabolism. A spontaneous intramolecular reaction can lead to esterification of the glucuronide, as shown in figure 4.1.1.4. The newly formed ester carbonyl is capable of reacting with the N-terminal of a protein residue to form a stable imine, i.e. this can lead to irreversible protein binding. Alternatively, depending on which species the glucuronic acid is bound to, nucleophilic substitution can again occur and the xenobiotic will react with the N-terminal of the protein and regenerate free glucuronic acid (Zamek-Gliszczynski, Hoffmaster, Nezasa, Brouwer, 2006). Pharmaceutical companies may therefore try to avoid designing drugs which are predicted to be metabolised by the glucuronidation pathway, not just to increase the half-life of the drug by avoiding conjugation and excretion but also to avoid the potential side-effects that can occur as a result of protein binding, such as cirrhosis of the liver. Interestingly, glucuronidation can also lead not just to metabolites that lose their therapeutic use and are toxic, but some glucuronides can continue to be pharmacologically active and may even be more potent than their parent drug. Morphine-6-glucuronide (M6G) is one such example. M6G and morphine are both potent analgesics M6G, despite having been conjugated with a large polar molecule, still binds strongly to ÃŽ ¼ opioid receptors to provide pain relief to the same extent as morphine. Morphine-3-glucuronide, another metabolite, binds preferentially to NMDA receptors instead, and causes allodynia, myoclonus and seizures (the side-effects associated with opiate usage). Morphine and codeine are so far the only known examples of glucuronides with high activity (Kaeferstein, 2009). 4.2. Glutathione conjugation Glutathione serves as a substrate for electrophilic drugs because of the nucleophilic thiol moiety on the cysteine residue (thus glutathione can be referred to in reaction pathways as simply GSH). GSH conjugation therefore involves a nucleophilic attack of the sulphur atom onto drugs with electrophilic carbon atoms, i.e. those bound to good leaving groups such as halogens, sulphate and nitro, as well as activated carbon atoms in ring strained systems such as epoxides and ß-lactones (Zamek-Gliszczynski, Hoffmaster, Nezasa, Brouwer, 2006). Conjugation leads to a thioether bond being formed between GSH and the drug molecule. Following this reaction, conjugates are typically metabolised further to yield more polar molecules which are better excreted in the urine and bile (Zamek-Gliszczynski, Hoffmaster, Nezasa, Brouwer, 2006). Figure 4.2.4 shows the possible biotransformation reactions of a glutathione conjugate. Transpeptidase and peptidase convert glutamate to NH2 and remove glycine, respectively. NH2 is then a target for N-acetylation (mentioned in section 4.4). Alternatively, two molecules of glutathione can react together to form a disulfide bridge, in the process donating hydrogen atoms to reduce another molecule. This is usually utilised in vivo when glutathione acts as an antioxidant (Forman, Zhang, Rinna, 2009), but also plays a part in drug metabolism as seen in the denitrification of the antianginal drug, glyceryl trinitrate (GTN) in figure 4.2.5 (Ji, Anderson, Bennett, 2009). To reiterate, GSH reacts with highly electrophilic species in the body. This prevents drugs with electrophilic groups from attacking important nucleophilic centres in biological molecules, such as DNA and proteins, which could lead to toxicity. This is explored further in section 5 where the consequences of insufficient glutathione conjugation of paracetamol metabolites are looked at. 4.3. Sulfation Sulfation is one of the classical processes of phase II metabolism. It allows the biotransformation of numerous xenobiotics and metabolites from phase 1 (shown in figure 4.3.1) to be sulphate conjugates. This gives protection against toxicity or the potential toxic effects from the numerous xenobiotics and metabolites not being conjugated. It also produces more polar, more water soluble metabolites, which means they are more easily and readily excreted in urine or bile. The sulphate conjugate possesses such advantageous properties by having a low pKa, allowing an increased aqueous solubility and excretion. It is an important reaction for drugs and hormones that contain the phenolic functional group to be metabolised by conjugation to a sulphate group examples include steroid hormones, catecholamines, neurotransmitters, thyroxine, bile acids and phenolic drugs. Examples of drugs and xenobiotics with a phenolic group attached: The chemistry behind the sulfation conjugation reaction emphasizes the important key features of the system. This includes the two enzymes sulfatase and sulfotransferase, alongside the co factor 3†²-phosphoadenosine 5†²-phosphosulfate (3†²-phosphoadenylylsulfate, PAPS) which plays an important role in sulfation conjugation. The availability of PAPS and its precursor inorganic sulphate determines the reaction rate as the total amount of sulphate is limited and can be readily used up. PAPS is formed enzymatically by ATP and inorganic sulphate. The enzyme sulfotransferase transfers the active sulphate from PAPS to the xenobiotic or a phase 1 metabolite forming the sulphate conjugate (VL Verdugo D, 2004). Sulphate conjugation is a reaction principally of phenols and to a lesser extent alcohols to form highly ionic polar sulphates. Sulphate conjugation is also important for steroids because steroid sulphates are not capable of binding to their receptor and so this reduces its biological activity. Sulfation of alcohol generates a good leaving group and can be an activation process for alcohols to produce a reactive electrophilic species. Mechanism of sulfation conjugation an electrophilic substitution reaction: The oxygen of the OH has a negative inductive effect on the benzene ring so it withdraws electrons towards it making it a more reactive nucleophile It attacks the electrophilic sulphur of the sulphate group of PAPS The hydrogen of the OH bond leaves in exchange for the sulphate group and UDP acts as a good leaving group This forms the sulphate conjugate which is soluble and readily excreted via the kidneys 4.4. Acetylation Conjugation Acetylation is also an important reaction in phase II metabolism as the majority of drugs contain a primary amine functional group. It is a major route for the biotransformation of hydrazine and aromatic amines. This means that acetylation of the arylamine or phase 1 metabolites can occur more easily to reduce their biological activity (Garcia-Galan Diaz-Cruz, 2008). The limitation of acetylation is that it produces conjugates that are less water soluble (Zamek-Gliszczynski, Hoffmaster, Nezasa, Brouwer, 2006) as well as it does not work for drugs containing secondary amine groups. The aim of acetylation is to convert the primary amine moiety into an amide because amides are more stable as peptide bonds are more resistant to hydrolysis. Like glucuronidation and sulfation this reaction is highly specific because of the nature of the enzyme involved. The main players of acetylation conjugation are N-acetyltransferase and the co factor acetyl Coenzyme which is a thioester . The reactio n undergoes electrophilic substitution similar to Friedal-Craft acylation. The NH2 attached to the aromatic ring makes it much more reactive and electron donating. NAT helps to transfer the acetyl group (CH3CO) obtained from Co enzyme A (CH3COSCoA) to conjugate with the drug at the amine site forming the amide bond. H-SCo-enzyme acts as a good leaving group. Mechanism of acetylation conjugation: The lone pairs of the nitrogen of the primary amine of sulphonamide attack the carbonyl carbon of the acetyl group of the acetyl coenzyme A. In this reaction nitrogen acts as a nucleophile, donating the pair of electrons to the electrophilic carbonyl carbon. The carbonyl carbon (ÃŽ ´+) is activated by the electron withdrawing oxygen (ÃŽ ´-) making it more susceptible to nucleophilic attack. This forms a temporary tetrahedral intermediate, which falls back to form an amide bond and SH-CoA acts as a leaving group. As a result the acetyl conjugation of sulphonamide is formed, and this is readily excreted via the kidneys. 4.5 Stereo selectivity Stereo selectivity is classed as a fundamental aspect of drug metabolism ever since the tragic case of the drug thalidomide. This has provided a broader knowledge on the understanding of drugs and xenobiotics and also the importance of their stereochemistry properties. As mentioned in section 4.1.1 (glucuronidation), drug metabolism may lead to stereochemistry inversion of substrates during the various reactions that occur. An example of how the understanding of stereochemistry in xenobiotic metabolism has practical applications can be seen with the non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug ibuprofen. It has been found that in vitro, only the S-isomer is pharmacologically active in inhibiting cyclooxygenase enzymes. However in vivo the metabolism of ibuprofen is complex, involving glucuronidation at the acyl group and hydroxylation at the 2 and 3 positions, but most importantly the metabolism of the 2 enantiomers differs because there is a unidirectional enzymatic conversion of the R-isomer to the active S-isomer. (Chang, et al., 2008). The metabolism of ibuprofen is summarised in figure 4.5.2. For this reason drug manufacturers typically produce a racemic mixture of ibuprofen for administration to patients, since the R-isomer will be converted within the body, and producing an enantiomerically pure sample would be needlessly expensive. 5. Micellaneous Amino acid conjugation is important for metabolising, solubilising and eliminating carboxylic acids through the urine because it produces very soluble conjugates. Amino acid conjugation mechanism e.g. benzoic acid (Xu, et al., 2007): The carboxylic group of the benzoic acid is first activated by ATP to the AMP ester This is then converted to the corresponding coenzyme A thioester with CoASH. These first two steps are catalysed by acyl Coenzyme A synthase enzyme The appropriate amino acid N-acyltransferase then catalyses the condensation of amino acid and Coenzyme A thioester to form the amino acid conjugate. Methylation conjugation: Even though it is not a common reaction for most drugs and xenobiotics, it is worth mentioning methylation because it is the most common biochemical reaction for endogenous compounds such as catecholamines (Strous, et al., 2009). Methylation plays a key role in the inactivation of amines such as norepinephrine, serotonin, dopamine and histamine, and is also involved in the biosynthesis of epinephrine and melatonin. A source of methyl comes from the high energy nucleotide S- adenosylmethionine (SAM) which is transported by cathecol-O- methyltransferase. However, it has been reported that methylated conjugates do not have improved water solubility (a similar disadvantage to acetylation). Methylation mechanism the nucleophilic substitution of norepinephrine: The lone pair on the electronegative oxygen of norepinephrine (R-OH) attacks the CH3 of SAM The bond between the sulphur and carbon breaks (S-C) Drug Toxicity The toxicity associated with acute paracetamol overdose is due to its metabolism processes. In the human body, paracetamol is mostly metabolised 30% by the sulfation pathway, 60% via glucuronidation and the remaining 10% being either excreted unchanged in the urine or undergoing CYP450-dependent oxidation as shown in figure 5.3 to form N-acetyl-p-benzoquinoneimine (NAPQI) (Airpine Choonara, 2009). NAPQI contains an electronically activated ring system, capable of attacking nucleophilic molecules such as N atoms in cellular macromolecules and causing cell damage. However NAPQI will preferably attack the more nucleophilic sulphur atom of glutathione and therefore will also undergo phase II metabolism to form inactive conjugates a schematic summary of the metabolism of paracetamo In overdose situations, the glutathione supply is used up as it is conjugated with the excessive NAPQI in the system. This leaves the rest of the NAPQI free to bind irreversibly to proteins in hepatic liver cells (since P450 metabolism occurs predominantly in the liver) and this cause liver necrosis. Without the detoxification capacity of the liver, the human body will typically die within 2 weeks (Airpine Choonara, 2009). With the chemistry of paracetamol metabolism in mind, it is easier to understand why some patients are classed as â€Å"high-risk† and thus more susceptible to paracetamol overdose: Recent alcohol (ethanol) consumption causes induction of the P450 enzyme involved in the formation of the NAPQI molecule; this leads to an increased quantity of NAPQI being produced and therefore the bodys supply of glutathione for conjugation is more rapidly used up leading to toxicity. Other drugs which induce the same P450 enzymes will have the same effect. Eating disorders such as anorexia nervosa lead to a poor diet and therefore decreased synthesis of glutathione in vivo, so NAPQI detoxification conjugation can be overwhelmed at lower concentrations of paracetamol consumption.

Operations Management Essay -- Business

Operations Management The purpose of this paper is to describe the importance of operations management to a health care organization. In addition, the author of this paper will provide a personal definition of what operations management means and why is important to a healthcare organization. According to the Institute of Operations Management The cost of providing fast, reliable health care is always an emotive issue, but it has been brought to the fore again via the Gershon report, which is challenging the established Health Care Supply Chain. As a precursor to more specific events that look at how operations management can help practitioners make best use of additional funding to improve patient care and enhance the working lives of Health Care Professionals. The essential healthcare management functions are organized into three major groups of activities governing, caring, and learning with a focus on reaching excellence in community healthcare. Within these activities, each system is described in terms of what it must do to make the whole system effective. Implementing and sustaining change is one of the most difficult tasks for any management -but change is a fact of life in any modern enterprise and, without the ability to manage change, no company can hope to survive it. Operations Managers addresses the practical issues that surround planning and implementing change, including motivating a business to change, engaging staff in the change process, determining performance measures and sustaining the benefits achieved in the initial change process. According to Stevenson (2002), operations management is the management of that part of an organization that is responsible for producing goods and/or services. Operations management is that part of a business organization responsible for planning and coordinating the use of the organization’s resources to convert inputs into outputs. The operations function is one of three primary functions of business organizations; the other two are marketing and finance. The operations function is present in both service-oriented and product-oriented organizations. Operations decisions involve design decisions and operating decisions. Design decisions relate to capacity planning, product design, process design, layout of facilities, and selecting locations for facilities. Operating decisions relate to quality ass... ...tal agencies, lawyers, and many others. Attention to the needs of the customers will always remain the focus of the effective operations manager. (Henderson, 1995) Finally, effective operations managers must realize that short-term gains at the expense of their partners (e.g., patients, physicians, payers) will almost certainly translate into long-term difficulty. As we move toward a more effective delivery system with less demand for resources, we will see vast shifts in how care is delivered. (Henderson, 1995) In conclusion, the author of this paper has described the importance of operations management to a health care organization. In addition, the author of this paper has provided a personal definition of what operations management means and why is important to a healthcare organization. References Henderson, M. D. (1995) Operations management in health care. Journal of health care finance. New York: Vol.21, Iss. 3; pg. 44, 4 pgs Stevenson, W. J. (2002). Operations management (7th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. The Institute of Operations Management. Management in the health care supply chain. Retrieved September 10, 2005, from http://www.iomnet.org.uk/ Operations Management Essay -- Business Operations Management The purpose of this paper is to describe the importance of operations management to a health care organization. In addition, the author of this paper will provide a personal definition of what operations management means and why is important to a healthcare organization. According to the Institute of Operations Management The cost of providing fast, reliable health care is always an emotive issue, but it has been brought to the fore again via the Gershon report, which is challenging the established Health Care Supply Chain. As a precursor to more specific events that look at how operations management can help practitioners make best use of additional funding to improve patient care and enhance the working lives of Health Care Professionals. The essential healthcare management functions are organized into three major groups of activities governing, caring, and learning with a focus on reaching excellence in community healthcare. Within these activities, each system is described in terms of what it must do to make the whole system effective. Implementing and sustaining change is one of the most difficult tasks for any management -but change is a fact of life in any modern enterprise and, without the ability to manage change, no company can hope to survive it. Operations Managers addresses the practical issues that surround planning and implementing change, including motivating a business to change, engaging staff in the change process, determining performance measures and sustaining the benefits achieved in the initial change process. According to Stevenson (2002), operations management is the management of that part of an organization that is responsible for producing goods and/or services. Operations management is that part of a business organization responsible for planning and coordinating the use of the organization’s resources to convert inputs into outputs. The operations function is one of three primary functions of business organizations; the other two are marketing and finance. The operations function is present in both service-oriented and product-oriented organizations. Operations decisions involve design decisions and operating decisions. Design decisions relate to capacity planning, product design, process design, layout of facilities, and selecting locations for facilities. Operating decisions relate to quality ass... ...tal agencies, lawyers, and many others. Attention to the needs of the customers will always remain the focus of the effective operations manager. (Henderson, 1995) Finally, effective operations managers must realize that short-term gains at the expense of their partners (e.g., patients, physicians, payers) will almost certainly translate into long-term difficulty. As we move toward a more effective delivery system with less demand for resources, we will see vast shifts in how care is delivered. (Henderson, 1995) In conclusion, the author of this paper has described the importance of operations management to a health care organization. In addition, the author of this paper has provided a personal definition of what operations management means and why is important to a healthcare organization. References Henderson, M. D. (1995) Operations management in health care. Journal of health care finance. New York: Vol.21, Iss. 3; pg. 44, 4 pgs Stevenson, W. J. (2002). Operations management (7th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. The Institute of Operations Management. Management in the health care supply chain. Retrieved September 10, 2005, from http://www.iomnet.org.uk/

Why Do The Terrorists Hate Us? :: Terrorists, Terrorism

"We have met the enemy and he is us." -- Walt Kelly   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Some politicians view ISIS as a snake and â€Å"If you cut of the head of the snake the rest will wither.† I view ISIS as more of a hydra than a snake, in that cutting one head off will only cause another to grow in its place. And while destroying ISIS would be welcomed by the American people it would hardly be the end of our problems. That action would just inspire more religious fanatics. They also love martyrs; it would only had fuel to the fire.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Why do they hate us? What is the reason for thousands of lost lives and millions of dollars in destruction? It can be broken down into 5 different reasons. Wealth, Power, viewed as the world police, our freedoms, and our Middle East policy. Why should hate be put upon a country with wealth? Success is a short step to wealth and with that comes jealousy. In our economic development we have worked with a small frame growth, in that, we use the economy to work for us and rarely include other countries. If we showed other third world counties to develop an economic system, like we did to China, they would also enjoy the feeling of wealth. With that though would come completion to America? Our power is hated. Our power in the military, our power in the culture we have and our power in the economy we use. This is the main reason we are hated. We are seen as a goliath that bosses around other countries, taking out governments we don’t like and putting others in. We did that to Iran, Saudi Arabia, Chilly and Panama. We pulled out of the Keocto proto call because it was not in our economy frame. We are seen as a country that only thinks about our self’s and has no concern for other countries. Our freedom to talk, dress, act, and worship as we please is seen in some areas of the Middle East as a weakness. We are â€Å"ungodly† and our women are viewed as sluts. We are considered a great Satan of the world. Our fore fathers died to make this country free of religious percussion and fought on the idea of freedom. These deaths and ideals are falling on deaf ears in parts of the Middle East.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Our Middle East policy is viewed as one sided.

Akron Zoo :: essays research papers

External Environment Like any other organization, Akron zoo is effected by many external environmental factors that may directly affect its yearly attendance and its ability to break even to continue to operate. The first externality that the Akron zoo faces is the climate. Because most zoos operate out in the open, its attendance is affected directly to the weather. Due to its northern climate, the zoo conducts its open season from mid-April until mid-October. Variations in weather also affect crop yields and prices of fresh animal foods, thereby influencing the costs of animal maintenance. Unfortunately, the Akron zoo can not do anything about the weather. The only other option it may have would to be to open more indoor activities, but that would be too high of a cost risk because the payback may have not been worth the construction in the first place. Zoo’s still remain as important part of any community and to the hearts of young children every year. It is estimated that more people annually visit zoos than enter all U.S. national Parks and that approximately and that 35% of people who attend zoos are adults. Cultural events that happen in the city of Akron and nearby areas help increase attendance at the parks. The biggest cultural event in Akron is the annual Snow Bowl. Not only does this event help increase attendance, In its 12-year history, Snow Bowl has raised over $388,000 for the animals at the Akron Zoo. Other events such as the annual Nocturnal Golf Tournament, annual birds seed sales and annual Sunday Sundae Zoobilation have huge effects on zoo attendance on the day/weekend of the events. On weekends where cultural events are going on, the Akron Zoo should try and sell items that would attract people who are visiting such as having certain products directly affiliated to the Snow Bowl at a slightly higher price that out-of-towners would be willing to pay for. Akron is located just south of Cleveland, Ohio.

Little Red Riding Hood Revisited Essay

People often ask me about the large grey wolf hide I keep hanging above the fireplace. I will admit it does seem rather odd for a young girl to have such a thing, and I assure you that the story behind it is even stranger. A story I have told many times to guests and passers by, and I always get the same look of disbelief, but I assure that this story is as true as they come. Walking to my Grandmother’s house was not a strange occurrence for me I had done many times, only this time would be far different. I had no idea of the events that were to unfold as I opened the door and entered Grandmother’s cabin. Grandma, are you there? † I called out as I entered the cabin. I made sure to move cautiously so that I did not hit my knees on anything in the dark. â€Å"I am in here darling. † I heard my Grandmother respond from the bedroom. I lit a lantern, and moved into the room where I found my grandmother lying peacefully in her bed. â€Å"Grandmother, I brought you fresh bread and vegetables from the market,† I exclaimed proudly as I removed my red overcoat and tossed it onto the rocking chair in the corner. â€Å"I will be back in a few minutes Grandmother. I am going to put on some stew, I hope you are hungry. â€Å"Oh, you have no idea, my dear. † My Grandmother said in somewhat of raspy whisper. â€Å"Grandmother, what is wrong with your voice? † â€Å"Oh nothing my dear, I think I am coming down with a bit of a cold. † Her voice, although sweeter than I remembered it, sounded forced and uncomfortable. Thinking nothing of it, I resumed my post, slicing vegetables and warming the broth over the fire. One by one as I finished making my cuts, I slid the slices into the broth, first the carrots, followed by onions and celery, and finally finishing with the tomatoes and potatoes. My stew was coming along nicely so I heated up some water on the side and began to boil tea leaves in a kettle to try and ease my grandmother’s sore throat and relieve her cold. â€Å"Red, how is everything going in there sweetie? † My grandmother queried anxiously from her comfortable perch in the bedroom. â€Å"Everything is coming along just fine Grandmother,† I replied, a little irritated. I had no idea why my Grandmother was in such a mood today, I had never seen her be this pushy and hurried. I stirred the stew one more and removed it from the fire in order to let it cool down as I made my grandmother a cup of tea. I ladled fresh hot soup into one of the bowls on my Grandmother’s counter, and then placed it along with a glass of tea on a wooden tray, and presented it to my Grandmother while she remained in bed in the dimly lit corner of the room. â€Å"Thank you my dear,† She said eerily. â€Å"I just don’t think I am in the mood for this stew. † â€Å"Grandmother, what are you talking about? † I exclaimed, â€Å"This is your favorite soup, you have made this soup for me since I was a little girl. † I paused and waited for a response but none was given. â€Å"Grandmother? † I peeped cautiously becoming more and more worried about what was going on. Grandmother? † I peeped again. Another long pause passed without as much as a whisper from Grandmother. I quickly grabbed the lantern that I had lit earlier and brought it close to the bed, shining as much light as I could on the growingly creepy situation. As I peered into my Grandmother’ s eyes, I noticed they looked strange. I looked closer, locked in her gaze, and, without even noticing, I whispered aloud, â€Å"Grandma, what big eyes you have. † â€Å"All the better to see you with my dear. † She answered in a strange tone that was as unfamiliar to me as her lack on interest in her favorite soup. Stranger still than her tone was the unmistakable largeness of her mouth, and even more so her teeth. I never remembered seeing her teeth that large. â€Å"Grandmother, what big teeth you have,† I muttered. â€Å"All the better to eat you with,† She replied. I gasped aloud as the shocking realization began to sweep over me. The loving Grandmother I had always known had been replaced by an unusually large wolf. I jumped out of the chair, and made a move for the door when the wolf, moving like lighting, blocked my path. â€Å"Why the rush? † asked the wolf slyly, with an air of arrogance. He quickly reached out for my throat, but underestimated me as I dodged and crawled through his legs. â€Å"You can’t run from me! † the wolf exclaimed as I used every once of energy I had to sprint through the front door and out into the forest. I could hear the loud crackling of breaking twigs and the scratch of the wolf’s claws against the hard frozen bark as he gave chase. I kept zigging and zagging, trying my hardest to remain a hard target for the wolf, but I could feel his breath getting closer and closer to my neck. Suddenly, in the distance I noticed an outline of a man, walking through the forest. I turned my sprint in his direction, and pumped my legs with everything they had left. With every step closer to the man, I felt more and more assured that I might yet live to see another day. â€Å"Help†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Help! † I yelled at the top of my lungs to the stranger in the distance. He turned around and I could see a lumberjack’s axe in his hands. I ran and ran, until finally I could reach out and grab the man. When I did, I turned around and noticed that the wolf was no longer behind me. â€Å"What is it, my dear? † The man asked in a calm voice as if not a single thing was out of place in the forest. Sir, a massive wolf has eaten my grandmother, and is chasing me. † I cried out as if my life depended on it. â€Å"Sweetheart, I see no wolf,† The man replied. Right at that exact moment, I noticed a large shadow over the man’s shoulder and looked up to see the wolf soaring through the air out of the trees. The wolf landed perfectly with it’s paws on my shoulders pinning me to the ground, but not attacking, just holding me there. â€Å"Oh, that wolf,† The man said calmly without so much as a hint of worry. â€Å"You did not tell me that you had met my pet. † â€Å"What are you talking about? † I sobbed loudly. Do you have any idea how hard it is to train a wolf? † The man jested. â€Å"Especially to train one to hide people’s relatives and lure little girls out to the forest. † â€Å"My Grandmother is alive? † I asked immediately. â€Å"Of course, she is. I have no taste for bitter old women. † The man seemed almost pleased with himself as one does when an elaborate plan comes together. â€Å"Enough of the small talk. † The man muttered casually. â€Å"Time to get you dressed out and ready for the dinner table. † I looked up, and watched as the man lined up the axe with my throat, and slowly raised it over his head. I had no choice but to close my eyes, and prepare myself for the inevitable. Just then, I heard the loud crack of a rifle, and looked up to see a horrifying grimace on the man’s face. I felt a drop hit my face as I noticed the red pool begin to grow on the man’s chest. His strength fading quickly, he dropped the axe. I reached up desperately, and grabbed the axe as it made its descent and caught it firmly in my hands. Rising to my feet I noticed the man lying on the ground clutching his chest and breathing heavily. Without so much as a moment’s hesitation, I drew the axe above my ead, and brought it swiftly down on the man’s neck, ending his suffering and life. I looked around frantically searching for the wolf, for I knew I wasn’t out of danger yet. Confirming my suspicions, I noticed the wolf running through the woods headed right for me, I raised the axe, ready to defend myself, when I heard another shot from a rifle, and watched as the wolf hit ground and slid to my feet dead. Shocked and relieved, I looked around for my savior. Camouflaged well I couldn’t find anyone. â€Å"Hello! † I shouted into the seemingly empty woods. My heart leapt with joy as I heard a familiar voice call back to me. Over here dear,† I ran toward the sound and looked upon the face with the familiar voice. â€Å"Grandma! † I shouted wildly. â€Å"I thought you were dead. † â€Å"Not at all dear, it would take more than an overgrown wolf to get the best of this old lady. † Surprised at this seemingly impossible turn of events, I went to ask her how this was possible, but all I could muster was a whimper. â€Å"I see you are shocked my dear, let me explain,† She said, calm as could be. My Grandmother then told me the story of how the wolf had taken her to a cave and left her there, presumably to take post in her bed. What the wolf and the hunter had not known was that Grandma was a widow, and had to fend for herself in the woods. She had been hunting this forest since she was a young woman some 25 years ago. That night Grandma and I ate quite a stew complete with wolf meat. Dinner was over and the dishes were clean, and, as Grandma sat by the fire cleaning her rifle, I relaxed after a hectic day in the rocking chair and dozed off under the warmth of my brand new cloak, a long over-sized wolf pelt which I gladly wore over my old red one.

Madame Bovary Analysis Essay

In Gustave Flaubert’s Madame Bovary, the story predominately follows how Emma Bovary becomes disenchanted with her lifestyle as the wife of Charles Bovary and seeks to find the unobtainable life she so desperately dreams of from the books she reads. However, before all of that, Charles Bovary has a history of his own with a previous marriage and a dreary childhood. In the passage describing a request for his services and his journey to a distance farm, the descriptive imagery and juxtaposition of his thoughts convey how static his character is. Flaubert chooses to describe Charles Bovary’s demeanor and actions as easy going to illustrate to the audience how his personality is both average and carefree. When a man frantically comes to their home in the middle of the night with a letter requesting Charles to set a broken leg, he â€Å"lean[s] his elbow on the pillow to read it† (11). Disregarding the fact that the situation is considered to be an emergency to many, Charles leisurely takes his time in his own comfort. This goes back to his growing up when chose to not prepare for his examination, resulting in his failure. He does not understand the gravity of circumstances and does everything as he pleases. This is further exemplified when he decides to leave â€Å"three hours later,† all â€Å"well wrapped† and moving in a â€Å"peaceful trot† (11-12). Rather than trying to get there as fast as he can, he goes at a pace where he can even fall asleep. He has little to no concern for the patient that is urgently waiting for him to put him out of excruciating pain. He has to make an attempt to â€Å"recall the broken leg† along with any knowledge he has on how to fix it during the journey (12). His lack of ambition is prevalent in this scene as it brings up his past apathy towards his schoolwork, which is catching up with him now, along with his currently indifference towards his work. He has no desire to excel in his job; he is perfectly content being an average man doing average work. This insight to his character shows how for a good portion of his life already, he has little to no goals in life and will most likely never strive to go above the ordinary. The description of Charles lethargically treating his job reveals his unchanging dispirited outlook on life. Flaubert’s use of juxtaposition when Charles is confused between his memories from long ago and from now to elucidate the lack of development within his character. He becomes disoriented between his life as a â€Å"student and [a] married man† because of his similarities in them, leading back to the idea that he has not changed much within the past years (12). The way he goes about regarding any task, whether it be in school or in his current home, is very calm and passive. He is already a grown man with a job and a wife, yet his personality has remained unchanging. The reflection that he has unveils to us how, due to the stationary nature of his character, time has passed in a continuum such that he cannot distinguish when moments of his life have passed. Comparing his life in medical school with the â€Å"iron rings of the bed curtains running on their rods† to his present life in a home with â€Å"his wife sleeping,† though most would think them to be vastly differing, the way he approaches them is the same—laid back to the point where he cannot distinguish between them anymore (12). By placing these two scenarios next to each other, Flaubert signals to the readers that, similar to how Charles has not changed from his childhood to now, he will continue to remain this mediocre man even in the future. Although we do not know why yet, this mindset of his seems to have importance towards the rest of the story. Altogether, the juxtaposition of Charles’ former and current self highlights the importance of his ordinary persona. Flaubert’s use of language brings out Charles Bovary’s passive behavior, indicating a significance in his sedentary character for later chapters. Charles’ easy going demeanor, not laudable nor detrimental, seems to be a base off which other characters are compared to. Since he does not strive for much nor cause harm, he acts as a norm for people to relate to.

Personality, Personality Development, Spheres, Public Relations

Define personality The free dictionary: the visible aspect of one's character as it impresses others: He has a pleasing personality. the sum total of the physical, mental, emotional, and social characteristics of an individual. the organized pattern of behavioral characteristics of the individual. the quality of being a person; existence as a self-conscious human being; personal identity. the essential character of a person. http://www. thepersonalitysystem. org: â€Å"Personality is the entire mental organization of a human being at any stage of his development.It embraces every phase of human character: intellect, temperament, skill, morality, and every attitude that has beeen built up in the course of one's life. † (Warren ; Carmichael, 1930, p. 333) (In an acknowledged overstatement†¦ ) â€Å"Personality is the essence of a human being. † (Hall ; Lindzey, 1957, p. 9, characterizing statements by Gordon Allport) â€Å"An individual's pattern of psychological pr ocesses arising from motives, feelings, thoughts, and other major areas of psychological function. Personality is expressed through its influences on the body, in conscious mental life, and through the individual's social behavior. (Mayer, 2005) 2. ) Define personality development http://www. education. com: Progressive organization of the psychological traits unique to an individual, occurring as the result of maturation and learning from birth through adulthood http://www. angelfire. com: Personality development is the developing a personality cult so as to create a strong positive impression about self with the targeted group, or in general; and more pertinent aspect of such personality is to maintain and prove in a long run. http://www. healthofchildren. com:Personality development is the development of the organized pattern of behaviors and attitudes that makes a person distinctive. Personality development occurs by the ongoing interaction of temperament, character, and environ ment. 3. ) components/spheres of personality Wikianswers: 1. Physical Aspect- Height, weight, size complexion. 2. Intellectual aspect-ability to analyze, synthesized or to give opinion 3. Emotional aspect- the right time,place 4. Social aspect-capability to go other people. meet other people without necessarily withdrawing. 5.Moral Aspect- Knowing right or wrong https://sites. google. com: 11. 2. 1 Identity Identity is experienced as being aware that one exists and that one has the right to live. The person accepts his limits and is prepared to exert his right to exist. He derives strength and courage from a basic feeling of security, from self-confidence and faith in others. He accepts responsibility for his behaviour. A patient with weakness in the sphere of identity feels insecure, â€Å"not O. K. â€Å"and avoids responsibilities. This often obstructs progress in therapy.Strengthening identity then has a high priority. 11. 2. 2 Intimacy Humans are social animals. One of the fi rst needs of an individual is to relate closely to one person in particular. This produces bonding between infant and mother. Later in life the intimacy of lovers and close friends develops, one learns to be close to others without losing one's own identity. Intimacy develops on the edge of fusion (identification with the other) and self-assertion. The antithesis: fusion versus autonomy is solved by â€Å"sharing†.A person who feels supported by a strong feeling of identity can reach out and become intimate with others thereby enriching their lives. The intimacy offered in return, is a reinforcement of one's own identity. If something in the sphere of intimacy is lacking, a patient may experience trouble in developing adequate social coping skills. In a therapist an unrequited need for intimacy may give rise to problems: the transfer of feelings by the patient to the therapist may cause confusion and elicit inadequate responses. 11. 2. Drives and emotions The art of living is making the right choices and decisions. This aspect of human behaviour is studied by motivation theory. It is an important domain for the communication pathologist: many disorders have their beginning in this sphere. 11. 2. 4 Relating socially In the process of self-actualisation this is the buffer-zone that people build around their identity and intimacy. Human drives and motivations are consummated in the social sphere: identity is fostered, intimacy has to be actualised in a social context.Interaction takes place with members of the family and other people in the environment, in an ever widening circle. Out of early experiences with socialisation a complex scene of transactions between people will grow, which E. Berne has aptly described as activities, pass-times and â€Å"games†. A fair number of games get people entangled in risky social habits of which they themselves are hardly aware. A life-scenario with unwholesome games may include some vicious speech- and voice ne uroses.Replacing the dominating games and changing the scenario, by role-playing and practising game-free relationships can bring about a profound change. It will bring the person closer to a true feeling of identity (instead of a fake one) and to genuine intimate relationships. 11. 2. 5 Creative energy and the power of will Men and women are often judged by the impression of power they display in carrying out their designs and resolutions, in demanding achievements from themselves and in dominating others or, on the other hand by submitting to others.Phantasy and creative power are important factors in people's lives, and so are ambition and perseverance to carry out one's design. 11. 2. 6 Cognition: perception, discrimination, evaluation In this sphere the person keeps his internal image of the environment and of his own functioning in this environment. Cognition has been collected from and pervades all previous levels: identity, intimacy, emotional self-preservation, relating to others, creativity and willpower, have their involuntary controls as well as a conscious representation.By rational thought the person tries to make sense of what is happening to him and to his environment. Rational though they may seem to be, thoughts may be subject to distortion: Misinterpretations and false expectations may occur as a consequence of exceptionally strong experiences dating far back in time. [pic] 4. ) define public relations http://www. businessdictionary. com: The profession or practice of creating and maintaining goodwill of an organization's various publics (customers, employees, investors, suppliers, etc. , usually through publicity and other nonpaid forms of communication. These efforts may also include support of arts, charitable causes, education, sporting events, and other civic engagements. http://www. prsa. org: â€Å"Public relations is a strategic communication process that builds mutually beneficial relationships between organizations and their publi cs. † www. answers. com (Britannica): Aspect of communications that involves promoting a desirable image for a person or group seeking public attention.